> For the complete documentation index, see [llms.txt](https://ykkim.gitbook.io/wiki/llms.txt). Markdown versions of documentation pages are available by appending `.md` to page URLs; this page is available as [Markdown](https://ykkim.gitbook.io/wiki/industrial-ai/tempcore-journal/machine_learning_of_mechanical_properties_of_steels.md).

# Machine learning of mechanical properties of steels

2020, Jie et. al., SCIENCE CHINA Technological Sciences

## 1. Introduction

본 논문은 5가지 ML 알고리즘(특히 랜덤 포레스트 및 Symbolic regression)을 사용해 steel의 4가지 기계적 특성을 예측

## 2. Data source

* 일본 재료과학연구소(NIMS)에서 공개한 철강 데이터셋 사용
  * 세계 최대의 실험 데이터셋 중 하나임
* fatigue strength, tensile strength, fracture strength, hardness, room temperature, chemical composition, proceeding condition 등의 정보 포함
* 피로강도에 대한 얘기
* heating rate and cooling rate는 사용할 수 없었음
* 열처리 온도 3가지 포함: Normalizing(불림), Quenching, Tempering
* 열처리 시간 불포함
* 불림 처리, 퀜칭, 템퍼링 처리가 없는 데이터를 제외하여 360개의 데이터로 줄어듦

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-283967d94189a857997339face263a30685d193d%2Ftc33.png?alt=media)

## 3. Result and discussion

### 3.1 ML models with all features

* 4개의 ML 알고리즘 사용: RF, LLS(linear least-square), kNN, ANN
* 16개의 feature 사용
* 10-fold cross-validation
* 성능 측정: R(correlation coefficient), RRMSE 사용

$$
\eqalign{ & R = {{\left| {\sum\nolimits\_{i = 1}^n {\left( {{y\_i} - \bar y} \right)\left( {{{\hat y}*i} - \bar y} \right)} } \right|} \over {\sqrt {\sum\nolimits*{i = 1}^n {{{\left( {{y\_i} - \bar y} \right)}^2}} \sum\nolimits\_{i = 1}^n {{{\left( {{{\hat y}*i} - \bar y} \right)}^2}} } }} \cr & RRMSE = \sqrt {{1 \over n}\sum\limits*{i = 1}^n {{{\left( {{{{y\_i} - {{\hat y}\_i}} \over {{y\_i}}}} \right)}^2}} } \cr}
$$

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-8f4d2e6c46761b42e1e6d30e7828671fed58954e%2Ftc34.png?alt=media)

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-a9337b6ecc3dbaa53d9af014fe5d239b75bf1a88%2Ftc35.png?alt=media)

* RF는 fracture strength에 대해 가장 좋은 예측
* ANN은 fatigue strength, tensile strength에 대해 가장 좋은 예측

### 3.2 Feature selection

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-861369f2818559c4058c35799a536174bec85474%2Ftc36.png?alt=media)

* RFI: RF에 의해 계산된 importance of feature
  * Mo, Cr, NT, TT가 가장 중요한 feature
* SRI: SR에 의해 계산된 importance of feature
  * TT, C, Cr, Mo가 가장 중요한 요소

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-c26b7784d8180fac9c01f54f6beec91c3b5fc240%2Ftc37.png?alt=media)

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-f42412f20622b0a03c81c74aef9daabfc18fcd6c%2Ftc38.png?alt=media)

* RFI, SRI로 선택한 feature들로 ML 알고리즘 적용
  * SRI subset으로 RF 진행한 결과가 가장 성능이 좋았음

### 3.3 Mathematical expressions

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-aff1a333ccf9b75cf72beff1a47a42de3863af6a%2Ftc40.png?alt=media)

* SR(Symbolic Regression)이란
  * mathematical expression을 찾는 회귀 방법
* SR의 결과

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-668f5ebe9aec778c97c3cf64ff9a102a348b2398%2Ftc41.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-8ab03ef576e550e5ab15ebc7bb1934773f7b9b4a%2Ftc39.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  * 높은 예측력을 보임
  * (3)\~(6)에 따른면 템퍼링 온도가 낮을 수록 TS와 Hardness가 향상됨

### 3.4 ML model based on atomic features

* 예측 성능을 일반화하기 위해 atomic feature를 사용

  * iron은 steel의 matrix임
  * steel의 합금원소는 iron matrix(용매) 내에서 '용질'로 작용해 합금원소와 화합물을 형성하거나 작은 cluster로 침전될 수 있음

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-59a8ffc0934657fab3b1b89e578b83a6a430b742%2Ftc42.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  * r\_i = 원소 i의 원자 반경
  * x\_i = 원소 x의 pauling electroengativity
  * a\_i는 다음과 같이 표현 가능

  $$
  \eqalign{ & {a\_i} = {{{x\_i}/{M\_i}} \over {\sum\nolimits\_i {\left( {{x\_i}/{M\_i}} \right)} }} \cr & where,{M\_i} = atomic,weight,of,element,i \cr}
  $$
* RF와 SR로 atomic feature 선택
  * RFI로 선택한 feature

    tVEC, dVEC-Fe, dVEC-C and TT for fatigue strength and hardness

    tVEC, aFe, dVEC-C and TT for tensile strength and fracture strength
  * SRI로 선택한 feature

    dVEC-C, dr-Fe, aFe and TT for all four mechanical properties
  * RF 및 SR로 선택된 feature를 RFI-AF, SRI-AF로 명명

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-cdb7f01868f87df09f2a24b37ad8a986da65fbd2%2Ftc43.png?alt=media)

* SRI, RFI로 선택한 feature의 RF 모델 예측 결과
  * All-AF가 SRI-AF와 유사한 성능
* SRI, RFI로 선택한 feature의 SR 결과

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-121fa9bbc780d85396c61702b66a5bf02e5d7cef%2Ftc44.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-193bdf9fb740ff5887c3174e102fedc1d75370cf%2F45.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  * 합금 원소가 강의 강도를 향상시킴

  <img src="https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-ace94968d1f2135850dddfbc0701cb843d58fed4%2Ftc45.png?alt=media" alt="" data-size="original">

  * 예측 결과

### 3.5 Development of anti-fatigue high-strength steel

![](https://3698175758-files.gitbook.io/~/files/v0/b/gitbook-x-prod.appspot.com/o/spaces%2F-MAwtzMy_pbrChIExFtN%2Fuploads%2Fgit-blob-5cff56f68cd13fe4ce41181531d39c7d182114f3%2Ftc46.png?alt=media)

* eqs 3-6, 7-10으로 예측한 결과와 조금 차이남

## 4. Conclusion

위 내용 요약
